Commonsense Reasoning
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  • A clear overview of the subject
Commonsense Reasoning
Erik T. Mueller
Manufacturer: Morgan Kaufmann
ProductGroup: Book
Binding: Hardcover

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ASIN: 0123693888

Book Description

To endow computers with common sense is one of the major long-term goals of Artificial Intelligence research. One approach to this problem is to formalize commonsense reasoning using mathematical logic. Commonsense Reasoning is a detailed, high-level reference on logic-based commonsense reasoning. It uses the event calculus, a highly powerful and usable tool for commonsense reasoning, which Erik T. Mueller demonstrates as the most effective tool for the broadest range of applications. He provides an up-to-date work promoting the use of the event calculus for commonsense reasoning, and bringing into one place information scattered across many books and papers. Mueller shares the knowledge gained in using the event calculus and extends the literature with detailed event calculus solutions to problems that span many areas of the commonsense world.

· Covers key areas of commonsense reasoning including action, change, defaults, space, and mental states.
· The first full book on commonsense reasoning to use the event calculus.
· Contextualizes the event calculus within the framework of commonsense reasoning, introducing the event calculus as the best method overall.
· Focuses on how to use the event calculus formalism to perform commonsense reasoning, while existing papers and books examine the formalisms themselves.
· Includes fully worked out proofs and circumscriptions for every example.
· Describes software tools that can be downloaded and used for automated commonsense reasoning, and real-world applications that have been built using the event calculus.

Customer Reviews:

5 out of 5 stars A clear overview of the subject.......2006-07-31

Occupying the time of many researchers over four decades, the goal of developing a machine that can reason in many different domains is finally reaching fruition. Progress in machine intelligence up until the last few years has been limited to abilities in a single domain, such as chess, checkers, backgammon, medical diagnostics, network management, and so on. Many researchers have held that the only way to eliminate this domain-specificity is to enable commonsense reasoning in machines. Humans of course can think in many domains. A chess master for example can also be a good writer or a good network engineer, and this is the case since any common elements in chess, writing, or network engineering can be recognized and exploited by humans. The integration and automation of commonsense reasoning in machines is challenging, but in this book an approach is outlined that has shown promise. The book of course is targeted to specialists and students in artificial intelligence, but it could also be accessible to cognitive psychologists, linguists, mathematicians, and others who are interested in the subject matter. The book is not only a theoretical discussion, for it discusses and points to practical tools that can be downloaded and used by the reader to illustrate the main issues in the book.

As the author defines it in the first paragraph of the book, commonsense reasoning as a process that takes information about a particular scenario and then makes inferences about other aspects of this scenario based on general knowledge of how the world operates. He discusses the main issues that arise in commonsense reasoning, such as the need for representing commonsense knowledge, the ability to reason about events, some of which may be concurrent or nondeterministic, and how to deal with space. Of particular importance in this discussion is the `commonsense law of inertia', which essentially makes the "intuitive" point that things will say the same unless they are affected by an event. However, this law is "violated" in many cases, the author discussing a few of these, and so a system for commonsense reasoning must be able to `release' certain `fluents' from this law.

Central to the book is the construction of the `event calculus', which is a system for representing commonsense knowledge and for implementing three types of reasoning abilities, namely `temporal projection', `abduction', and `postdiction.' The fundamental notion of course is the `event', which is an action taking place in the world. Also fundamental is the notion of a `fluent' that represents a property in the world that varies with time. All knowledge is represented declaratively in the event calculus, in order that it can be implemented in the logic programming paradigm, and it is based on a `many-sorted' extension of first-order predicate logic. Also central to the event calculus is the `timepoint' which represents an instant in time. The `discrete event calculus' is a version of the event calculus where the timepoint is restricted to the integers. Both of these systems are axiomatized early on in the book. Of particular interest and very important to commonsense reasoning is the notion of nonmonotonic reasoning and the accompanying notion of circumscription. That commonsense reasoning must be at times nonmonotonic is obvious, since certain premises held at one time may have to be altered when new information presents itself at a later time.

The event calculus is a particular formalization of commonsense reasoning, and for this to work over more than one domain it is necessary to describe formally the notion of a domain. The author calls this a `domain description' and he endeavors to make it as flexible or "elaboration tolerant" throughout the book in order that the event calculus is able to handle novel situations as they arise.

The extensive discussions and characterization of the event calculus throughout the book, as well as the examples and extensive references that are given, give the reader a solid understanding of it. Many of the concepts in the event calculus are similar to ones that are found in the other systems of artificial thought. One of these is the `triggering' of events, which is used in discrete event simulation for example, and where an event occurs if a particular condition becomes true. Events whose occurrence depends on something happening are of course very common in the real world, and any effective implementation of commonsense reasoning will have to deal with them. The challenge is to design a system that does not require all the pre-conditions be put in by hand. The axioms for triggering, along with the reasoning patterns that are used by the machine (prediction, abduction, and postdiction), should be sufficient for dealing with events that are contingent on other actions taking place. If they had to be anticipated individually, the number of statements to this effect would proliferate beyond measure, making the commonsense reasoning system extremely brittle and useless. In addition, and the author discusses this in some detail, repeated triggering must be suppressed. This is accomplished by incorporating additional trigger and effect axioms in the system.

The most interesting issue discussed in the book concerns the implementation of the mental states of `agents' in the system of commonsense reasoning. It is in this discussion that the author first introduces the concept of an agent, which he defines as an entity that engages in purposeful actions in the world. An agent can have beliefs, which can be true or false; goals, which the agent wants to be true; and plans, which are a collection of actions that the agent performs in order to reach a goal. The author formalizes these notions he gives examples. But it is when he discusses emotions that things get very complicated, for he introduces 78 axioms that he believes are needed for implementing the Ortony-Clore-Collins emotion theory. He does not discuss whether or not these axioms are independent, and from a simplicity standpoint the implementation would be more believable if the number of axioms were a lot less than the ones that are required in the book.
Nonmonotonic Reasoning: Logical Foundations of Commonsense (Cambridge Tracts in Theoretical Computer Science)
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    Nonmonotonic Reasoning: Logical Foundations of Commonsense (Cambridge Tracts in Theoretical Computer Science)
    G. Brewka
    Manufacturer: Cambridge University Press
    ProductGroup: Book
    Binding: Hardcover

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                      Average customer rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars
                      • Extremely Well Written
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                      • Introduction to the Islamic legal theory
                      A History of Islamic Legal Theories: An Introduction to Sunni Usul al-fiqh
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                      5 out of 5 stars Extremely Well Written.......2003-01-09

                      In addition to the existing comments:

                      This book is extremely well written. Although it reads like a textbook, this merely reflects the high level of scholarship the author brings to his subject. The analysis is precise, thorough, and clearly explained. He touches a point once, addresses it completely, and then moves on. An essential read.

                      4 out of 5 stars A good introduction.......2001-03-18

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                          The jurist Ebu’s-su`ud (c. 1490–1574) occupies a key position in the history of Islamic law. For forty years, he held the senior judicial position in the Ottoman empire, most of this time serving under the Sultan Suleiman I, known in the West as “the Magnificent.” The Ottomans, however, remembered the Sultan as “the Lawgiver,” emphasizing that it was above all the legal order of his reign that they admired. The central figure of this order was Ebu’s-su`ud.

                          The Ottoman concept of the ideal law was traditional Islamic law, the shari ‘a. However, the problem was that the shari ‘a was in many respects impractical and had always, of necessity, coexisted with secular systems of law. An Ottoman tradition, which began in the seventeenth century and which modern historians often reiterate, asserts that during the reign of Suleiman I, Ebu’s-su`ud succeeded in harmonizing the secular law with the shari ‘a, creating, in effect, a new ideal Islamic legal system.

                          This book examines the validity of this assertion. The author begins by choosing five areas of Islamic law for analysis: the Sultan and legal sovereignty; land tenure and taxation; trusts in mortmain; marriage and the family; and crimes and torts. In each of these areas, he first lays out the most important rules and concepts in the Islamic juristic tradition, and then gives his translations of a selection of Ebu’s-su`ud’s writings on the topic in question, with a brief analysis. From these materials, the author suggests that readers draw their own conclusions as to whether Ebu’s-su`ud did indeed reconcile Ottoman secular legal practice with the sacred law.

                          This way of presenting the material is done for two reasons. The first is that Ebu’s-su`ud’s texts (which are inaccessible to most people, either linguistically or because they exist only in manuscript) are made available in translation, so that readers can agree or disagree with the author’s conclusions. The second reason is to present a wide array of previously unavailable sources to encourage further research in the study of Islamic and Ottoman law, demonstrating that the careful, detailed examination of these and other related sources can illuminate important areas of Ottoman law and Islamic history.

                          Islamic Law and Legal Theory (International Library of Essays on Law and Legal Theory : Legal Cultures, 7)
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                            Islamic Law and Legal Theory (International Library of Essays on Law and Legal Theory : Legal Cultures, 7)
                            Ian Edge
                            Manufacturer: NYU Press
                            ProductGroup: Book
                            Binding: Hardcover

                            GeneralGeneral | Law | Subjects | Books
                            IslamicIslamic | Legal History | Law | Subjects | Books
                            LawLaw | Islam | Religion & Spirituality | Subjects | Books
                            GeneralGeneral | Law | Professional & Technical | Subjects | Books
                            GeneralGeneral | Reference | Subjects | Books
                            ASIN: 0814721893
                            Release Date: 1996-05-01

                            Book Description

                            This Major Reference series brings together a wide range of key international articles in law and legal theory. Many of these essays are not readily accessible, and their presentation in these volumes will provide a vital new resource for both research and teaching. Each volume is edited by leading international authorities who explain the significance and context of articles in an informative and complete introduction.
                            Feminism and Islam: Legal and Literary Perspectives
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                              Feminism and Islam: Legal and Literary Perspectives
                              Mai Yamani
                              Manufacturer: NYU Press
                              ProductGroup: Book
                              Binding: Paperback

                              GeneralGeneral | Sex | Health, Mind & Body | Subjects | Books
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                              Feminist TheoryFeminist Theory | Women's Studies | Nonfiction | Subjects | Books
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                              ASIN: 0814796818
                              Release Date: 1996-12-01

                              Book Description

                              In an age when Western feminism is continuously undergoing redifinition, the struggles of women in Muslim countries are often overlooked. This volume illustrates how women in Islamic societies have become more actively involved not only in learning their rights under the sharia (Islamic law) but in rereading this law to improve their status and gain increased equality and freedom. Surveying Iran, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Egypt and Arab societies in general, the essays in feminism and Islam focus on such subjects as crimes of honor and the construction of gender in Arab societies; law and the desire for social control; women ad entrepreneurship; family legislation; and the political srategies of feminists inb the Islam world. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The first Saudi Arabian woman to ean a docorate from Oxford, Mai Yamani is Research associate at the Center of Ixlamic and Middle Eastern law at the School of oriental and African Studies of the University of London.
                              The Heritage of Islam: Women, Religion, and Politics in West Africa
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                                The Heritage of Islam: Women, Religion, and Politics in West Africa
                                Barbara Callaway , and Lucy Creevey
                                Manufacturer: Lynne Rienner Publishers
                                ProductGroup: Book
                                Binding: Paperback

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                                Islam, Law, and Equality in Indonesia: An Anthropology of Public Reasoning
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                                  Islam, Law, and Equality in Indonesia: An Anthropology of Public Reasoning
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                                  Manufacturer: Cambridge University Press
                                  ProductGroup: Book
                                  Binding: Hardcover

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                                  ASIN: 0521824826

                                  Book Description

                                  Muslims currently struggle to reconcile radically different sets of social norms and laws (including those derived from Islam, as well as contemporary ideas about gender equality and law) in Indonesia, the world's largest Muslim-majority country. John Bowen explores their struggle through archival and ethnographic research and interviews with national religious and legal figures. His book relates to debates in any society where people struggle to live together with extreme differences in values and lifestyles and is welcomed by scholars and students in all branches of the social sciences.
                                  Law and Legal Theory in Classical and Medieval Islam (Collected Studies, Cs474)
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                                      Studies in Islamic Legal Theory (Studies in Islamic Law and Society)
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                                        Manufacturer: Brill Academic Publishers
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                                        Emerging Trends in Biological Control of Phytophagous Insects
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                                          Manufacturer: Intercept Ltd
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